The prey-carrion-eater system's dynamics in the presence of a subsidy: The role of panic and the group’s hunting

Abstract

In ecology, the group’s hunting behavior and panic are both significant topics. Therefore, a novel three-dimensional dynamical model that integrates carrion availability, a panic-regulated prey population, and a carrion-eater species that simultaneously exploits both subsidy (or carrion) and live prey is proposed and studied. The model incorporates nonlinear functional responses, panic-driven suppression of prey growth, and cooperative hunting in the carrion-eater. Mathematical analysis establishes positivity and boundedness of all state variables, ensuring ecological feasibility. Equilibrium points are explicitly derived, and their local stability is analyzed using the Jacobian matrix, while global stability is assessed through the construction of appropriately designed Lyapunov functions. The results indicate that increasing panic intensity can suppress prey abundance and stabilize the system. At the same time, cooperative hunting enhances the efficiency of carrion-eaters, potentially leading to persistent cohabitation or oscillatory dynamics depending on parameter regimes. These findings extend classical carcass–prey–carrion-eater frameworks, highlighting the critical role of carrion recycling and behavioral mechanisms in shaping multi-trophic ecological dynamics. The model offers a unified theoretical framework for investigating realistic ecosystems where carrion use, panic effects, and mixed feeding strategies combine.